Vol. 1, No. 1, May 2019

Literacy of Croatian vocational school students in school assignments and texts written in new media in leisure time

Alfabetización de alumnos de escuelas vocacionales croatas en tareas escolares y textos escritos en nuevos medios en el tiempo libre

Communication by means of new media inevitably leads to changes in language that are reflected in a new type of discourse. The main features of this discourse are the use of abbreviations, emoticons, dialecticism, anglicisms, neologisms, vulgarisms, and profanities. This way of writing, however, is often seen as writing with a lot of errors, which then have a negative influence on literacy in general and, particularly, on the literacy of young people. Therefore, during 2016, the authors of this article conducted a research study of the real literacy of young people analyzing school assignments written by students in their final years of vocational schools and their communication in new media. The 2016 research study was a follow-up study to the research study that had been carried out in 2015 with grammar school students. This new research study compared vocational school students with grammar school students in Croatia.

Keywords: the language of new media, literacy, students in vocational schools, school texts, texts written in leisure time.

La comunicación a través de los nuevos medios conduce inevitablemente a cambios en el lenguaje que se reflejan en un nuevo tipo de discurso. Las características principales de este discurso son el uso de abreviaturas, emoticonos, dialecticismo, anglicismos, neologismos, vulgarismos y blasfemias. Esta forma de escribir, sin embargo, a menudo se ve como una escritura con muchos errores, que luego tienen una influencia negativa en la alfabetización en general y, en particular, en la alfabetización de los jóvenes. Por todo esto, durante 2016, los autores de este artículo realizaron un estudio de investigación sobre la alfabetización real de los jóvenes, que analiza las tareas escolares escritas por los estudiantes en sus últimos años de escuelas vocacionales y su comunicación en nuevos medios. El estudio de investigación de 2016 fue un estudio de seguimiento del estudio de investigación que se llevó a cabo en 2015 con estudiantes de la escuela primaria. Este nuevo estudio de investigación comparó estudiantes de escuelas vocacionales con estudiantes de escuelas de gramática en Croacia.

Palabras clave: el lenguaje de los nuevos medios, la alfabetización, los estudiantes de escuelas vocacionales, textos escolares, textos escritos en el tiempo libre.

With the development of new media in all spheres of life there has been a change in society that has inevitably entailed changes in language too. The new media have not replaced the old media, but they live in parallel with the old ones that have evolved through history which is responsible for coexistence of the so-called classical and new literacy. In the new media it is common for the sender and the recipient to share their thoughts with the participants in the communication, to use unambiguous codes, and to choose a very specific language of communication (Filipan-Žignić, 2012). Characteristic features of the language of new media are primarily linguistic economy, speed-up of communication and simplifications, the possibility of reduction and partial automatism, and the density of activities (Siever, 2011). The new media have made it possible for information images, sound, moving pictures or the combination of all the things mentioned to be accelerated and compressed or thickened. On SMS and Twitter, for example, even the number of characters is limited so that users try to make their comments and discussion as concise as possible. The main quality of this type of communication stems from the fact that almost all forms of communication and almost all types of media are intertwined in it. This combination of communication and media that in addition to transmission also offer the possibility of storing data occurs only on the network that has become the integral part of our everyday life (Filipan-Žignić, 2012). New media have a particularly strong influence on the language of young people because their communication must be fast and efficient due to the limited time, space and, money that is available. In the given conditions, a new type of communication has evolved in which there is no longer a clear boundary or line of division between the written and spoken language but "(...) in the communication by e-mail, SMS, Facebook, Twitter, in blogs or chat rooms the writing with the elements of speech has prevailed" (Filipan-Žignić, 2012, p. 11).

Thus, the language of new media can be recognized by its distinctive casual style that is normally associated with oral communication in which the sender of the message does not have a lot of time to design and tune up messages. The main features of such a casual writing style are reflected in the use of abbreviations, emoticons and other grapho-stylistic characters, elevated incidence of the use of punctuation, dialecticism, anglicisms, neologisms, vulgarisms and profanities, imitation of sounds, usage of paratexts, frequent pauses and repetitions, incomplete sentences and limited vocabulary (Filipan-Žignić, 2012; Siever, 2011). For young people new media have become a space of experimentation with language and a place to create new rules and conventions. Thus, the language of new media is characterized by the use of wordplay, exaggeration in expression, shortening of sounds, grapho-stylistic elements, compounds, and the like (Filipan-Žignić, 2012).

There are two ways of communicating on Facebook, one is one to one, and the other form is one to many. While the former belongs to private language, the latter is increasingly becoming the sphere of public language. This is based on the fact that these are closed groups (Filipan-Žignić, Kitner, & Sobo, 2016). Since communication on Facebook represents direct written communication, it is not surprising that a specific written colloquial language has developed, and it can be said that this is a new non-traditional mode of communication (Filipan-Žignić & Mošmondor, 2015). The participants in the communication on the Internet type their messages quickly and briefly so that the other party does not have to wait long for an answer. In doing so, they do not try to produce grammatically and stylistically correct sentences but are expressing themselves as they would normally do in oral communication.

Research done on Facebook and the SMS, nowadays the two most widely used services by young people, has proved that the language of the new media has developed its own peculiarities that are visible at all language levels starting at the orthographic, over grafostylistic, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical, and ending in the (hyper)-textual one (Filipan-Žignić & Mošmondor, 2015; Filipan-Žignić, Sobo, & Velički, 2012). Many people fear that it is precisely the language of the SMS and that of Facebook, as well as the language of other Internet services, that will deteriorate the standard language because of their aforementioned specific characteristics.

In the language used by young people in chat rooms, Crystal (2006) finds many examples of deviations from the norm, such as typos, the use of jargon and a disregard for spelling and grammar, but he does not see anything wrong with this language. The same is also true of the language of the SMS, which many critics are accusing of being the cause of the deterioration of the language, but Crystal (2006) sees no threat or danger to the standard language in it. On the contrary, he believes that the similarity of the language of the SMS to the spoken language is positive and that by writing SMS text messages, e-mails and blogs children develop new creative forms of reading and writing. Regardless of the deviations from the norm (reductions at the phonological-orthographic, morphological and syntactic level, the use of anglicisms, dialecticism and vulgarisms and profanities) SMS discourse has become a specific language variety. This is also highlighted by Žic-Fuchs & Tuđman-Vuković (2008, p. 122), “SMS text messages have become a language variety in their own right, exhibiting specific regularities in different aspects of language use”.

The authors of this paper, as it has already been stated, want to find out how, nowadays, young people really write at school and in their free time in the new media, in order to determine the extent to which their writing in new media affects their literacy and whether or not there are any differences in the literacy of grammar school and vocational school students regarding the use of the elements of the language of new media in their school assignments and in the communication in new media in their leisure time.

The purpose of this current research study was to examine the literacy of today’s young people and to explore their modes of writing in their school assignments (both in the native and foreign language (English and German) as well as the writing that they do in their free time in new media with regard to the existence or non-existence of the elements of the language of new media. The current research study was conducted as a follow-up to the previous multi-year research of the language of new media done by Filipan-Žignić and various associates (2012-2016), as well as the direct continuation of the research of the literacy of young people that was done in 2014 and 2015 by the same team of authors of this article when they interviewed grammar school students on their way of writing as well as analyzed their written works. It should be noted that in Croatian linguistics the research of the language of new media are only just starting to heat up. They have been conducted by Filipan-Žignić (2012, 2013, 2015) and by Filipan-Žignić et al. (2015, 2016) as well as by Žic-Fuchs and Tuđman-Vuković (2008), Vlastelić and Vrbanac (2014), whereas in the English-speaking world there have been a number of similar studies (Crystal, 2006, 2011; Seargeant & Tagg, 2014; Krishnamurthy, Herring, Stein, & Virtanen, 2013; etc.) as well as in the German linguistics (Dürscheid, Wagner, & Brommer, 2010; Schlobinski, 2009; Siever, 2011; Storrer, 2001; Tour, 2010, etc.) where research studies of this kind abound.

The goal of the current research study is to examine the literacy of students in vocational schools with regard to the influence of the language of new media of the Internet services (primarily Facebook) because of the ever-growing number of remarks that the language of young people has deteriorated due to the negative impact of the language that they use in the new media. This study includes an analysis of the corpus of school assignments of students in vocational schools, which are then compared with the texts that they write in their spare time in the new media with regard to the existence or non-existence of the elements of the language of new media (written language with many elements of spoken language such as abbreviations, emoticons and other iconic characters, etc.) both in the students' mother tongue and in the foreign languages (English and German). The study was conducted using the computer programme Oxford WordSmith Tools 6.0 which is able to process the total number of words, the frequency of words, the average length of words, the number of tokens, word count according to the number of letters and other things. Students' written assignments (there were 264 pieces of work: half of them were in mother tongue and half of them in foreign language) were first digitized and then excerpted into a WordSmith Tools 6.0 application by means of which all the elements of the language of new media were analyzed and compared with the mode of writing used in the standard language.

Zadaćnicas are ʻessaysʼ that all Croatian secondary school students write twice a year (at the end of the first and the second term) on a given topic and that are part of the final assessment of the mother tongue and the foreign language (English and German) as prescribed by the curriculum. They are usually compositions that follow a default structure with an introduction, a body or plot, and conclusion. They have to be written in a formal style within a range of language varieties (e.g., sociolect, regional expressions, jargon or mediolect) in Standard Croatian, English or German that students learn as a foreign language (EFL, GFL) respectively. Zadaćnicas were written immediately before data collection during the school year 2015/2016 (i.e., synchronically).

The corpus of students' written assignments, zadaćnicas, and the corpus of Facebook texts that have been analyzed in this paper, are authentic linguistic data obtained from the actual language practice. The former come from real school practice and the latter real texts written in free time.

After data processing, the differences were shown with respect to the results for grammar school students from past studies that have been obtained once by means of questionnaire analysis with an additional analysis with SPSS for the Windows computer programme, and in another occasion by using the WordSmith programme.

As for the texts written by the students in their leisure time (mostly on Facebook), they were typically written in a style that deviates from the standard and that contains varieties that are specific to the language of new media and with predominant elements of the spoken language. The study analyzed the utterances from Facebook (messages, timelines and chat rooms) that were written in the mother tongue and in a foreign language (English and German) that students voluntarily made available to the authors of this article, who in turn guaranteed students' anonymity. In terms of word count, the corpus was equal as in school texts. Its size was almost identical to that of the grammar school sample from 2015. The mother tongue corpus contained 63234 words, the English corpus 27890, and the German corpus 7164. (Filipan-Žignić, Legac, & Sobo, 2016).

Afterwards, the authors of this article compared the results from the earlier research studies with grammar school students and the results of the analysis of the language corpus of texts written by students from vocational schools obtained by means of the Oxford Wordsmith Tools 6.0 programme. Using this approach, the researchers obtained current relevant data on the literacy of young people in the new media as well as in their school assignments.

The sample for the study presented in this paper consisted of 264 fourth grade students from vocational schools (age 18 or 19) from the towns of Čakovec, Varaždin, and Karlovac from three northern and North-western Croatian counties. One written work per student was analysed.

As we have already stated, in the current research study the authors are conducting a follow-up research study to determine whether or not there are differences between the written language in school assignments of grammar school students (also 264) and students from vocational schools in the previously mentioned languages (Croatian as the mother tongue and EFL and GFL). At this point it is important to explain an important feature of the difference between different types of secondary schools in Croatia and why grammar and vocational schools have been chosen by the authors. Grammar schools or gymnasiums (as they are called in Croatia and in some other Central European countries) are generally considered to be an elite school because they are attended by best students. Most students who graduate from them continue their education at colleges and universities. Students enrolling to vocational schools are often considered to be less gifted for learning. After graduating from secondary schools, they usually start their working careers in various trades. The authors have thought that this whole new project would enable them to obtain a complete picture of possible changes in the literacy of young people resulting from the influence of the new media.

The chapter Methodology first describes the authors' starting hypotheses. This is followed by the detailed description of instruments.

The authors’ starting point is that the literacy of students in vocational schools has not changed or deteriorated under the influence of the language of new media, especially the Internet and mobile phones, as it turned out in the earlier research study conducted among grammar school students. It is assumed that students in vocational schools and grammar schools exclusively use standard language to write their essays both in their mother tongue and the foreign language with no elements that they normally use in their communication in new media in their leisure time. Therefore, this paper started under the assumption that:

H1: In their school assignments, vocational school students consistently write in the standard language with no elements normally used when communicating through the new media;

H2: In their private texts, vocational school students write in the language of new media (written language with many elements of spoken language as well as with many abbreviations);

H3: There are no significant differences between the research results obtained from grammar school and vocational school students.

H4: There are no significant differences between the texts written in their native and foreign language with regard to the elements of the new media.

The Oxford WordSmith Tools 6.0 computer programme was selected as the main instrument in this study. Before proceeding to data processing by using The Oxford WordSmith Tools 6.0 computer programme all the selected texts were digitized. All the text content had to be converted to format text files (* .txt), so that they could be analysed by using the above mentioned computer programme. This was followed by the definition of settings in the programme (e.g., the determination of the language of analysis, first Croatian and then English and German). The number of digits for the frequency was set. Defining the settings was followed by storing incoming texts that were to be analysed. Selecting the WordList as the main OSD management interface displays the frequency of occurrence of each word in text files as well as the percentage relative to the total number of words. By using the application Wordlist - compare 2 Wordlists, it is possible to compare two individual lists of words. This has greatly helped our analysis in this study. This way, all the words that appear in the two compared lists of words, such as. the list of words from zadaćnicas and the list of words used in the new media in leisure time become visible. The words in the lists of words can be alphabetically sorted making it easy for the researcher to locate them and to pinpoint a particular type of word, but they can also be arranged by frequency.

Separation of homonyms was facilitated by means of one of the principal tools of this programme; it was Concord for concordance. This tool makes it possible for the researcher to see a desired word in different contexts. The concordance function enabled the researchers to distinguish individual expressions in their different functions by examining the contexts in which certain words appear. For the purpose of this study the authors used two different kinds of wordlists (corpora) of school texts and of texts written in free time:

Thus, the two lists were compared by using the Wordlist application of the WordSmith Tools 6.0 programme (wordlist - compare 2 wordlists) i.e. the lists with the corpora of students’ school works and the private pieces of work in the mother tongue and in a foreign language were compared with the lists with abbreviations, regional dialectal expressions, emoticons, capital letters, vulgarisms and profanities. Additionally, anglicisms were checked in the mother tongue and German as a foreign language texts.

The results of this and previous research studies (Filipan-Žignić, Legac, Pahić, & Sobo, 2015; Filipan-Žignić et al., 2016) have shown that students, regardless of whether they are grammar school students or vocational schools students, write in zadaćnicas, i.e. their school assignments, both in the mother and in the foreign language regularly and almost exclusively in the standard language, and, therefore, one cannot talk about the bad influence of the language of new media. It is evident that vocational school students from our sample, when writing their zadaćnicas, almost never used the elements of the language of new media, while in texts written in their leisure time in new media (texts written on Facebook) they used all the elements of the language of new media as it was the case with the research conducted with grammar school students (Filipan-Žignić et al., 2016).

Figure 1 shows the results of the use of the elements of the language of new media in the texts written in their mother tongue by students from vocational schools. It can be seen from the figure that students extremely rarely use elements of the language of new media in texts that are part of school assignments, whereas in the texts written in their free time in new media they consistently use the language of new media with almost all its elements (such as abbreviations, emoticons and other signs, only upper-case letters, multiple punctuation marks to increase the effect of their utterances or statements, etc.).

Figure 1: Use of the elements of the new media in the texts written in the mother tongue by vocational school students

As can be seen from Figure 1, elements of the language of new media rarely appear in school texts written in the mother tongue. Thus, phrases without the subject or auxiliary verbs that are specific to communication in new media occur extremely rarely. The abbreviations used by vocational school students in their zadaćnicas in their native language relate primarily to those ingrained in the standard (npr. itd., sl., dr. .... / ʻe.g.ʼ ʻetcʼ. ʻand so onʼ, ʻand similarʼ, ʻand the othersʼ). They are not the abbreviations that are taken from the language of new media (e.g., LOL - Laughing out loud, btw - By the way, tnx- Thanks), the emoticons and other iconic signs. In school texts one can more often encounter multiple punctuations (...) and anglicisms (sport, hotel, etc).

As for the anglicisms, their use in the Standard Croatian language is not so common as it is for instance. in German, so, the anglicisms appear in zadaćnicas in the mother tongue in a very small percentage (11%), while in casual conversation among young people in Croatia (as well as among young people in Germany) the use of anglicisms is very common and it is reflected in their communication during leisure time on social networks. Unlike anglicisms, which can be found in school assignments, there are no vulgarisms or profanities at all, whereas in the texts that are written in leisure time they occur quite frequently (62.7%). Regional dialect expressions frequently appear in texts that are written in students' spare time, whereas in zadaćnicas they are almost non-existent. The only dialect expressions that occur are ve ʻnowʼ and the negation ni ʻneitherʼ (cf. infra Figure 2).

Figure 2: Results obtained by WordSmith 6.0 Programme for mother tongue (Croatian) + dialectisms used by vocational school students

Results of the study show that there is no difference as for the literacy and errors due to bad influence of the language of new media among vocational school students regarding the texts in the foreign language as it was the case of the previous research study with grammar school students. In fact, both groups of students consistently use the standard language in school texts with no elements of the language of new media, whereas in the texts written in their leisure time they use all the characteristic elements of the language of new media.

Figure 3. Use of elements of new media in texts written in the foreign language by vocational school students

It should be noted that in zadaćnicas written in foreign language (specifically in those written in German) anglicisms occur more often than in zadaćnicas written in their native language, but it cannot be said that it happens due to the influence of the language of new media because anglicisms have otherwise been greatly imposed in the German language, therefore, they occur increasingly more often even in texts written in standard language (e.g., bye bye, thanks, shopping, sorry, inbox, mail, cool, like, share, nice, ...).

The most commonly used terms in the texts written in the foreign language in students' free time are abbreviations. This is not surprising because the abbreviations that are often used originate from the English language.

One can also notice the fact that in foreign language texts written as school assignments there are no vulgarisms and profanities. In texts written in students' spare time vulgarisms do occur (14.5%), but this is much less common than in the texts written in the mother tongue in their spare time (62.5%). The fact that students do not use profanities in foreign-language texts and that in their leisure time communication they use them less often than in the mother tongue is apparently associated with the lower level of their knowledge of the foreign language than of the mother tongue, which is quite plausible. In addition to this, texts written as school assignments will be assessed and graded and this is why students choose words more carefully.

The biggest difference in the use of elements is visible in emoticons. Whereas emoticons are used very often in foreign language communication in leisure time, they are almost omitted in school texts.

If we look at Figure 4, which compares the results of school assignments written by grammar school students and those written by vocational school students for selected elements, one cannot observe any significant discrepancies (e.g., vulgarisms were absent in 2015, and in this research study they are present in only 0.5%).

Figure 4. Comparison with the results of school texts of grammar school students (2015) and vocational school students (2016) in previous research studies done by the same group of authors (WordSmith)

Figure 4 shows the consolidated data for the use of the language of new media in the mother tongue and in the foreign language in order to clearly demonstrate that there are no significant deviations in both cases, but that the participants from vocational schools in our sample write in standard both in the mother tongue and in the foreign language if they are writing at school and for school purposes, whereas if they are writing in the new media in their leisure time, they will consistently use the language of new media with all its characteristic elements.

All of us today are well aware of the fact that in the last decade communication among young people has experienced big changes under the influence of new media that are primarily reflected in the speed and instantaneous communication that does not allow long reflections and careful preparation of written texts, but is characterized by a brief, economical style that saves time and money.

Such communication is often seen as the cause of deficiencies in the knowledge of the standard language and some linguists, parents, teachers and the general public are now of the opinion that such communication is a bad influence that leads to the deterioration of the language of young people. Based on the results of the above described research study and also on the results of previous research (Dürscheid et al., 2010; Filipan-Žignić, 2012, 2013; Filipan-Žignić et al., 2015, 2016) that has been referred to in this paper, the authors conclude that young people are not illiterate, but that they clearly distinguish two ways or modes of writing and ways of expressing themselves. It thus happens that in their school assignments, both in the mother tongue and in a foreign language, young people write in the standard language without using the elements of the language of new media. This suggests that young people know the norms of the standard language and that they have developed new ways of expression in the new media that is specific to their generation, which only proves that they are creative and imaginative in their communication. The significance of this work is that it shows the actual literacy of young people in one generation in their final year of vocational schools in the Republic of Croatia. It has also facilitated the comparison of the results obtained in the study of literacy of two different groups of students – grammar school students (students of elite schools) with students of vocational schools. Namely, after the earlier research study conducted among grammar school students, complaints could be heard that the sample included only students from elite schools (grammar schools) who achieve very good and excellent results in their written school assignments and that the results of their literacy were predictable, whereas the familiarity with and the knowledge of the standard language among vocational school students is poorer, which would lead to higher proportions of other language varieties and especially of the language of new media.

This research has refuted all such thinking, for it has shown no significant differences in literacy between grammar school and vocational school students with regard to the use of the elements of the language of new media. It has also shown that both groups of students regardless of their relaxed, casual communication on social networks and mobile phones in daily life and despite the powerful influence of the language of new media, are well aware of the fact that in school they have to use the standard, whereas in new media they can use language that is typical of those media. The differences are really visible in the quality and quantity of texts (especially those in school assignments) with the advantage of grammar school students, but not in relation to the use of elements of the language of new media.

The authors of this paper hope that this research study will provide relevant data about the literacy of one generation of Croatian secondary school population and that it will also contribute to the change of ingrained beliefs that young people are becoming illiterate because of their communication in new media. This research study should also encourage similar research with other age groups so that a more complete picture could be obtained about the impact of new media on the literacy of several generations that frequently communicate in new media.

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