European-Portuguese version of the C-test

Authors

  • Masayuki Yamada Universidade do Minho (Portugal)

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.21814/diacritica.575

Keywords:

C-test, Assessment, Proficiency, Acquisition of Portuguese, Portuguese as a foreign language

Abstract

Proficiency assessment is crucial when one interprets the results of SLA studies. Inconsistent results among them can occur from a lack of uniformity in the methods of the proficiency assessment. In general, institutional status and estimates based on learners’ linguistic profile are taken into consideration. However, the score of independent tests is rarely utilized. In this article, we developed a European-Portuguese version of the C-test, a simple fill-in-the-blank test used to measure general proficiency of a foreign language. High coefficients of Cronbach Alfa and Omega were found, demonstrating its reliability. Proficiency classification based on the test score showed strong correlation with the assessments made by teachers (r = 0.74), which could imply that the test captures the general proficiency. Moreover, other parameters, namely classroom level and learners’ self-assessment, also correlated strongly with the assessment by teachers (r = 0.79 and 0.77). The use of the test for the future is discussed.

References

Alderson, J. C. (2005). Diagnosing foreign language proficiency: The interface between learning and assessment. London & New York: Continuum.

Anderson, J. (1992). Automaticity and the ACT theory. The American Journal of Psychology, 105(2), 165–180. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1423026

Babaii, E. & Ansary, H. (2001). The C-test: A valid operationalization of the reduced redundancy principle? System, 29(2), 209–219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(01)00012-4

Babaii, E. & Moghaddam, M. J. (2006). On the interplay between test task difficulty and macro-level processing in the C-test. System, 34(4), 586–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2006.09.002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2006.09.002

Baghaei, P. & Tabatabaee, M. (2015). The C-Test: An integrative measure of crystallized intelligence. Journal of Intelligence, 3(2), 46-58. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence3020046. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence3020046

Bialystock, E. & Smith, M. S. (1985). Interlanguage is not a state of mind: An evaluation of the construct for second-language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 6(2), 101–117. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/6.2.101

Brown, J. (2005). Testing in Language Programs. McGraw-Hill Companies.

Chapelle, C. A. & Abraham, R. (1990). Cloze method: what difference does it make? Language Testing, 7(2), 121–146. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/026553229000700201

Cleary, C. (1988). The C-test in English. RELC Journal, 19(2), 26–37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/003368828801900203

Cohen, A. D., Segal, M., & Bar-Siman-To, R. (1984). The C-Test in Hebrew. Language Testing, 1(2), 221–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/026553228400100206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/026553228400100206

Corder, P. (1967). The significance of learner's errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5(1), 161–170. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.1967.5.1-4.161

Correia, R. D. Z. (2011). Os erros no discurso escrito de Hispano-Falantes de nível B2 (Dissertação de Mestrado, Universidade de Lisboa).

Cronbach, L. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555

Curto, P. (2014). Classificador de textos para o ensino de português como segunda língua (Dissertação de Mestrado, Universidade de Lisboa).

Curto, P., Mamede, N. & Baptista, J. (2014). Automatic readability classifier for European Portuguese. System, 5, 6.

DeKeyser, R. (1997). Beyond explicit rule learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(2), 195–222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197002040

Eckes, T. & Baghaei, P. (2015). Using Testlet Response Theory to Examine Local Dependence in C-Tests. Applied Measurement in Education, 28(2), 85-98. https://doi.org/10.1080/08957347.2014.1002919. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08957347.2014.1002919

Eckes, T. & Grotjahn, R. (2006). A closer look at the construct validity of C-tests. Language Testing, 23(3), 290–325. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532206lt330oa. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532206lt330oa

Ellis, N. (2015). Implicit and explicit learning.pdf. In P. Rebuschat (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 3–23). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.48.01ell

Ellis, R. (2005). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 141–172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263105050096

Firth, A. & Wagner, J. (2007). Second/Foreign Language Learning as a Social Accomplishment: Elaborations on a Reconceptualized SLA. The Modern Language Journal, 91(s1), 800–819. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00670.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-7902.2007.00670.x

Flesch, R. (1948). A new readability yardstick. Journal of Applied Psychology, 32(3), 221–233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0057532

Grotjahn, R. (2016). The electronic C-Test bibliography: Version 2015. Disponível em: http://www.c-test.de/deutsch/ctest/pdf/C%20Test%20Bibliography/Grotjahn_Electronic_Ctest_Bibliography.pdf.

Grotjahn, R. & Stemmer, B. (2002). C-Tests and language processing.pdf. In J. Coleman, R. Grotjahn, & U. Raatz (Eds.), University language testing and the C-Test (pp. 115–130). Bochum: AKS-Verlag.

Hill, M. & Hill, A. (2008). Investigação por questinário. Edições Sílabo.

Isabel, L. (2006). Léxico, aquisição e leitura do português europeu língua não materna. Lisboa, Portugal: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian.

Jafarpur, A. (1999). Can the C-test be improved with classical item analysis? System, 27(1), 79–89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(98)00043-8

Kamimoto, T. (1993). Tailoring the test to fit the students: Improvement of the C-test through classical item analysis. Fukuoka Women’s Junior College Studies, 30(11), 47–61.

Katona, L. & Dornyei, Z. (1993). The C-test. FORUM, 31(2), 35–38.

Khodadady, E. (2014). Construct Validity of C-tests: A Factorial Approach. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(6). https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.5.6.1353-1362. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.5.6.1353-1362

Klein-Braley, C. (1985). A cloze-up on the C-Test: A study in the construct validation of authentic tests. Language Testing, 2(1), 76-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/026553228500200108

Klein-Braley, C. (1997). C-Tests in the context of reduced redundancy testing: An appraisal. Language Testing, 14(1), 47–84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/026553229701400104

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press: Longman.

Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures. United States of America: The University of Michigan Press.

Lee-Ellis, S. (2009). The development and validation of a Korean C-Test using Rasch Analysis. Language Testing, 26(2), 245–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532208101007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532208101007

Lei, L. (2008). Validation of the C-Test amongst Chinese ESL Learners. THE JOURNAL OF ASIA TEFL, 5(2), 117–140.

Leiria, I. (1991). A aquisição por falantes de Português Europeu língua não materna dos aspectos verbais expressos pelos Pretéritos Perfeito e Imperfeito (Dissertação de Mestrado, Universidade de Lisboa).

Li, S. (2010). The Effectiveness of Corrective Feedback in SLA: A Meta-Analysis: Meta-Analysis of Corrective Feedback. Language Learning, 60(2), 309–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00561.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00561.x

Masters, G. N. (1982). A Rasch model for partial credit scoring. Psychometrika, 47(2), 149–174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02296272

McDonough, K. & Kim, Y. (2009). Syntactic Priming, Type Frequency, and EFL Learners’ Production of Wh-Questions. The Modern Language Journal, 93(3), 386–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00897.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00897.x

Montrul, S., Dias, R. & Santos, H. (2010). Clitics and object expression in the L3 acquisition of Brazilian Portuguese. Second Language Research, 27(1), 21–58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658310386649

Okada, K. (2011). Beyond Cronbach’s alpha: a comparison of recent methods for estimating reliability. The Japanese Journal for Research on Testing, 7(1), 38–50.

Okada, K. (2015). Reliability in psychology and psychological measurement, with focus on Cronbach’s Alpha. The Annual Report of Educational Psychology in Japan, 54(1), 71–83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5926/arepj.54.71

Pienemann, M. (1998). Language processing and second language development: Processability Theory. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.15

Pinto, J. (2014). A aquisição do género e da concordância de género em português língua terceira ou língua adicional. In P. Osório & F. Bertinetti (Eds.), Teorias e Usos Linguísticos. Lisboa: Lidel.

Raatz, U. & Klein-Braley, C. (1981). The C-testa – modification of the cloze procedure. Practice and Problems in Language Testing, University of Essex Department of Language and Linguistics Occasional Papers No. 26.

Raatz, U. & Klein-Braley, C. (2002). Introduction to language and to C-Tests. In James Coleman, R. Grotjahn, & U. Raatz (Eds.), University Language Testing and the C-Test. AKS-Verlag Bochum.

Rodrigues, E. (2015). Concordância de número e gênero em estruturas predicativas no português brasileiro. LinguíStica, 11(1), 135-152.

Samejima, F. (1968). Estimation of latent ability using a response pattern of graded scores. ETS Research Report Series, 1968(1), i-169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2333-8504.1968.tb00153.x

Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 10(1-4), 209-241. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209

Spolsky, B. (1973). What does it mean to know a language; or how do you get somebody to perform his competence? In J. Oller & J. Richards (Eds.), Focus on the learner (pp. 164-176). Newbury House Pub.

Taylor, W. (1953). Cloze procedure - a new tool for measuring readability. Journalism Quarterly, 30(4), 414-438. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107769905303000401

Thomas, M. (1994). Assessment of L2 proficiency in second language acquisition research. Language Learning, 44(2), 307-336. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1994.tb01104.x

Thomas, M. (2006). Research synthesis and historiography. In J. Norris & L. Ortega (Eds.), Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching (pp. 279-298). Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.13.13tho

Tremblay, A. (2011). Proficiency assessment standard in second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(3), 339-372. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263111000015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263111000015

VanPatten, B. (2007). Input processing in adult SLA. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 115-135). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410615299

Wainer, H. & Kiely, G. (1987). Item clusters and computerized adaptive testing: A case for testlets. Journal of Educational Measurement, 24(3), 185-201. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.1987.tb00274.x

Wang, W.-C. & Wilson, M. (2005). The Rasch Testlet Model. Applied Psychological Measurement, 29(2), 126-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621604271053. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621604271053

Published

2020-03-24

How to Cite

Yamada, M. (2020). European-Portuguese version of the C-test. Diacrítica, 32(3), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.21814/diacritica.575